In short, sex is determined at conception; therefore, all methods used in society to influence sex during gestation are futile and will not be discussed further [2]. However, the divide between men and women is not clearly defined. We must assume that some men may be female, or some women may be male, and whether or not these traits are expressed, or to what extent, depends on the circumstances. Geneticist Crew aptly stated, "In every fertilized egg, regardless of whether its sex chromosomes are XX or XY, there is always a material basis for developmental impetus. This basis and impetus are multifaceted; some drive the individual towards male differentiation, while others drive it towards female differentiation [3]."

To discuss knowledge beyond sex chromosomes in this area, we must address the role of endocrine glands. The development of glandular science is a relatively recent phenomenon, occurring within this century [referring to the 20th century], and it is closely related to sex psychology. We can begin by saying that sex is determined by the combination of glands, that is, by the sum of many endocrine glands. Next, we can say that this is already certain: within this glandular combination, if the testes truly occupy a central position and the activity of the glandular combination is led by them, the person is undoubtedly a man; otherwise, if the ovaries occupy a central and leading position, the person becomes a woman. Thus, both men and women develop their normal primary sexual characteristics and healthy sex organs. By the time sexual maturity is reached, all the necessary secondary and even tertiary sexual characteristics are fully developed. Primary sexual characteristics, including the fundamental differences in sex organs, are the easiest to identify; secondary sexual characteristics, such as the presence of a beard in men and the high-pitched voice in women, are also readily apparent; however, tertiary sexual characteristics are not easily identified, and we must conduct a statistical study of the characteristics of both sexes to see them clearly. Each level of sexual characteristic can exhibit considerable variation. Gonads and secondary sexual characteristics can migrate towards intersex (intersexuality, between male and female). Those who migrate particularly extensively can become physically or mentally like the opposite sex, or even both.

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A woman lying with her arms crossed. Armedio Modigliani

Ellis said, "By the time of sexual maturity, all the necessary secondary and even tertiary sexual characteristics are fully developed. Primary sexual characteristics, including the fundamental differences in sex organs, are the easiest to identify; secondary sexual characteristics, such as a man's beard and a woman's high-pitched voice, are also readily apparent." Whether male or female, their gender characteristics are determined by the combination of glands, a truly remarkable combination.

We now believe that most of these characteristics can be traced back to the function of the glands. Glands secrete hormones, chemical messengers with stimulating effects. Endocrine glands do not have external ducts; their secretions or hormones are transported directly to all parts of the body via the bloodstream. Sexual characteristics are developed through the stimulation or inhibition of hormones, and variations in these characteristics arise from too much or too little hormone, or abnormal hormone transport. Not only sexual characteristics, but also general physique, temperament, and interests are governed by hormones. At extremes, a person who was originally male can become like a woman, or vice versa. An malfunction of one hormone can also affect other hormones. The various endocrine glands are normally a harmonious and balanced system; this harmony and balance cannot be maintained when they are involved. Much research has been conducted in this area recently, in various countries; new facts and new perspectives are constantly emerging. Recent discoveries have paid particular attention to the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, suggesting that its hormones have a special stimulating power; the importance of the adrenal gland has also been significantly highlighted. In contrast, gonads such as the testes and ovaries have become more commonplace than before. This may be true, as Blair Bell had long argued that the status of the ovaries or testes was no different from that of the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, etc., "They are all links in a chain, which is a system, let's call the genital system" [4]. The hormone secreted by the testes, called "provirons," is specifically responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics, which is already established. The ovaries secrete two hormones, one called "estrone" and the other called "progestin"; the functions of these two hormones are not yet well understood. This knowledge is far from being systematized, but those engaged in sex psychology should at least know that the results of many ongoing physiological and biochemical studies are increasing day by day, and can be understood by simply looking through various medical and biochemical journals. While we cannot and need not discuss these new developments in detail, there is one thing we must understand: a physiological shift that was previously thought to be initiated by the nervous system is now considered to be initiated by the endocrine system. At least we believe that the active force of the endocrine gland system is not inferior to that of the nervous system. Sometimes, the activity of the endocrine glands is indeed subject to the nervous system, but sometimes it is quite unrelated to the nervous system, and even the activity of the nervous system and the nerve center is controlled by the chemistry of the endocrine system.

If we accept Langdon Brown's view [5], we might say that the endocrine glands are the organification and systematization of various chemical structures in lower animals; the adaptation of lower animals to the environment was due to these structures. In this sense, their history predates the development of the nervous system. The origin of the endocrine glands is very ancient, and there is an interesting piece of evidence that the organs from which various secretions or hormones originate are some very ancient or even degenerate structures in evolutionary history, such as the pituitary gland and the pineal gland. At the same time, we should also remember that although the origins of the endocrine system are ancient, the characteristics produced by its stimulating or inhibiting forces are some of the most human-like. This point was specifically raised by Bolk several years ago; and, in the eyes of anthropologist Keith, the differentiation and composition of human races are also attributable to the role of the endocrine system. Later, as the nervous system gradually developed and became dominant among the systems, it connected with these pre-existing chemical organs, especially its lowest level governing the internal organs, namely the so-called sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. The sympathetic system is largely related to the metabolic aspect and physiological excitation, thus it is connected to the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, and adrenal glands; while the parasympathetic system's function is related to both the metabolic and physiological inhibition aspects, thus it is connected to the pancreas, and indirectly, also to the parathyroid glands. Metabolism and metabolism function in a diametrical, opposing way, and the rhythm of life is established on the balance between them. The secretions of the gonads, namely the testes or ovaries, are related to metabolism in one aspect—that is, through interaction with the sympathetic nervous system and the thyroid gland. As for the pineal gland and thymus, although they are not true endocrine glands (because, as far as we know, they do not secrete much), their role in the overall glandular system is largely different: they have an inhibitory effect on sexual development, but a promoting effect on physical development.

Of all the glands, the pituitary gland is truly the mastermind: it has been said that if the glandular system were a band, it would be the leader; this analogy is apt. This bean-like structure connected to the brain by a small stem was considered by ancient anatomists as a rudimentary brain, and in retrospect, this view is not entirely wrong. As physiologist and endocrinologist Harvey Cushing aptly stated, "Here, in a well-hidden place, lies the sole source of primitive life, the very source that enabled primitive life to drink, eat, express emotions, reproduce, and remember its origins. And upon this source, humans have added a layer of cerebral cortex, teaching moderation in eating, emotions, and reproduction—an effort that has been somewhat successful." We now understand the gland's influence on sexual development more clearly than before. Research by Evans and Simpson has discovered a causal relationship between cells within the gland and sexual development and general physical growth.

The thyroid gland, sometimes called "the gland of creation," is also crucially related to reproductive function. Some once believed it was not only related to the creation of reproduction but also to all creative activities, including intellectual and artistic creation; however, this assertion is an overstatement. Its secretion, called thyroxine, has a gradual effect on general nutritional status (and we should know that this hormone can now be synthesized artificially).

Adrenaline from the adrenal glands (also synthesized artificially) has a rapid effect on the heart, blood vessels, liver, salivary glands, large and small intestines, pupils, and spleen. Although adrenaline has a wide range of influences, its secretion is strictly controlled by the nervous system, a fact well understood by the researcher Tournade.

The various endocrine glands also have their own interactions. Removing the thyroid gland can result in the pituitary gland growing abnormally; conversely, early removal of the pituitary gland can stop the development of the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland can also stimulate the adrenal glands, which in turn stimulate the liver, causing it to transport stored glycogen into the bloodstream. This glycogen transport, in turn, promotes the secretion of insulin from the pancreas. The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland appears to produce or secrete three different hormones: one promotes physical growth; another stimulates the ovaries, causing follicles to mature and produce estrogen, which in turn alters the uterine environment to prepare it for fertilization; and the third hormone further adjusts the uterine environment to ensure the fertilized egg can implant properly. Estrogen, secreted by the ovaries, has a specific practical effect on reproductive function. The presence of estrogen in a woman's urine is evidence of pregnancy, and the Zondek-Aschheimer reaction (AZR) pregnancy test is based on this.

The chemical effects of endocrine processes and the effects of drugs share many similarities. Sharpey-Schafer proposed dividing hormones into two types and giving them two different names: the stimulating type is called "hormone" or stimulant, and the inhibiting type is called "chalone" or stagnation factor. Together they are called "autacoid," which means that they are almost drug-like substances produced by the body itself.

In summary, we know that to understand physiological phenomena, we must not only attribute them to neural regulation but also trace them back to chemical regulation. We also know that behind mental or psychological phenomena lies not only the support of the nervous system but also the support of chemical mechanisms, with the latter seemingly being particularly important. Furthermore, we must understand that within our bodies exist many substances, small in quantity but numerous in variety and immense in power, such as various hormones, vitamins, and various serum substances and vaccines obtained from the outside world—collectively, these can be called biochemical drugs. The more advanced our knowledge of these drugs, the more significant their importance seems to become. However, despite this fact, we have no reason to import biochemical terms into the field of psychology. We previously saw people introduce histological terms into psychology and considered it a mistake; we should not repeat this mistake. An emotion is always an emotion, regardless of whether, in terms of physical constitution, it is caused by an stimulating hormone or an inhibitory one.

https://www.romanoy.com/2025/10/29/the-material-basis-of-sex/

(http://www.autoadmit.com/thread.php?thread_id=5791061&forum_id=2Reputation#49383558)